List of Datasets

Handheld, UGV

CAVERS

Multimodal cave SLAM

Cave recordings from handheld and rover platforms combining RGB-D, thermal, LiDAR and IMU with partial external motion-capture truth.

Metadata: Complete Metadata source documented Released 2026

Primary places to inspect, download, read about, or reproduce the dataset.

Supplementary

Not reported

Quick facts

Vehicle type
Handheld, UGV
Environment
Indoor
Data origin
Real-world
Sensor count
5
Ground truth
Available
Calibration
Parameters Only
Annotations
Not reported

Sensor overview

High-level sensor availability before the detailed sensor records below.

Cameras

3 reported

IMUs

1 reported

GNSS

Not reported

LiDAR

1 reported

Radar

Not reported

Magnetometers

Not reported

Barometers

Not reported

UWB

Not reported

Ground truth

Reference scope, method, rate, coverage, and provenance.

Scope Method Reference system Count Rate Coverage Reference provenance
External
Measured using equipment independent of the platform’s normal onboard sensor pipeline.
Derived
Computed primarily from the dataset’s own recorded sensors.
Hybrid
Combines independent reference equipment with onboard measurements.
6DoF Motion capture OptiTrack 10 infrared cameras 120 Hz Partial · Loc Diablo1, Loc Diablo2, Loc Diablo3, Loc Diablo4, Loc Diablo5, Loc Diablo6, Loc Diablo7, Loc Diablo8, Loc Handheld1, Loc Handheld2, Loc Handheld3, Loc Handheld4, Rec Handheld1 Reference provenance
External
Measured using equipment independent of the platform’s normal onboard sensor pipeline.
Derived
Computed primarily from the dataset’s own recorded sensors.
Hybrid
Combines independent reference equipment with onboard measurements.
External
Accuracy notes
Ray/wand calibration errors near 5 mm are not an independently validated trajectory bound.
Reference notes
Motion-capture reference at approximately 120 Hz in Sala Dosel only: 13 of 24 listed sequences. Pose-derived velocities are also provided; they are not independently measured velocity truth.

Calibration and synchronization

Reported calibration level, reproducibility signals, and supporting notes.

Level
Parameters Only
Processed parameters
Available
Raw calibration data
Not reported
Calibration targets
Heated 12-by-9 glass checkerboard

Parameters only

Processed calibration parameters are reported, but raw calibration data is not reported.

Notes

MATLAB intrinsics, rig CAD and factory D435i extrinsics; recording calibration images does not by itself establish raw-calibration release.

Known or intentional limitations

Reported constraints and characteristics to check before using the dataset.

Motion capture covers thirteen of twenty-four sequences in Sala Dosel; it is absent from other cave recordings. The approximately 5 mm calibration residual is not a whole-trajectory accuracy bound.

Image resolution depends on task: localization and reconstruction RGB/depth differ. The combined 200 Hz inertial output interpolates native 62 Hz acceleration.

The thermal sensor is described inconsistently as near infrared despite an 8–14 micrometre band. Software timestamps leave acquisition delays; RTAB-Map estimates are not added as independent truth.

Cameras

Camera 1

Model
Intel RealSense D435i
Setup
Rgbd
Count
1
Effective cameras
2
Modality
Rgbd
Resolution
Not reported
Rate
15 Hz
Shutter
Not Reported
Lens type
Not Reported
HFOV
Not reported
VFOV
Not reported
Notes
Localization RGB/depth 640x480; reconstruction RGB 1920x1080 and depth 848x480. One fixed resolution would be misleading.

Camera 2

Model
Optris PI640i
Setup
Mono
Count
1
Effective cameras
1
Modality
Thermal
Resolution
640 x 480
Rate
6 Hz
Shutter
Not Reported
Lens type
Not Reported
HFOV
Not reported
VFOV
Not reported
Notes
Approximate rate. Source says near-IR but gives 8–14 micrometres; normalized thermal images and floating-point temperatures are distinct products.

IMUs

D435i integrated IMU

Model
Not reported
Count
1
Accel / gyro
62 / 200 Hz

GNSS

Not reported

LiDAR

Velodyne VLP-16

Model or name
Velodyne VLP-16
Count
1
Dimensions
3
Rate
5 Hz
Channels
Not reported
Range
Not reported

Radar

Not reported

Additional sensors

Not reported

Annotations

Reported annotation availability and task support.

Availability
Not reported
Format
Not reported
Class count
Not reported
Semantic segmentation Not reported
Instance segmentation Not reported
Object detection Not reported
Optical flow Not reported
Depth ground truth Not reported

Citation

Citation key and BibTeX kept at the end of the page for reference.

Citation key
franchini2026cavers

BibTeX

@misc{franchini2026cavers,
  author = {Giacomo Franchini and David Rodríguez-Martínez and Alfonso Martínez-Petersen and Carlos J. Pérez-del-Pulgar and Marcello Chiaberge},
  title = {CAVERS: Multimodal SLAM Data from a Natural Karstic Cave with Ground Truth Motion Capture},
  year = {2026},
  url = {https://arxiv.org/abs/2604.15052v2}
}

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